75

The History of Bioelectromagnetism

Lillehei (1918–1999), an American surgeon, the University of Minnesota, and Earl Elmer Bakken (1924–

2018), an American biomedical engineer and industrialist, built the frst external battery-operated pace­

maker which included two transistors in 1957. Tis gave transistorized and wearable pacemakers. Tis

invention led to improve the pacemakers design and it spread quickly and widely over the world. Bakken

with his brother-in-law Palmer Hermundslie (1918–1970) founded Medtronic, Inc on April 29, 1949. He

founded in 1975 the Bakken Museum in Minneapolis, Minnesota, where the excellent exhibitions pres­

ent the history and explanations of electricity, electromagnetism, and bioelectromagnetism. Te cardiac

pacemaker and cardiac defbrillator are the milestones in bioelectromagnetism.

2.6 Research on Biological and Health

Effects of Electromagnetic Fields

Te International Electro-Technical Exhibition was held in Frankfurt am Main, Germany, between May

and October of 1891. At this exhibition, an important demonstration was given of long-distance high

power transmission by means of a three-phase alternating current. Te power was generated 175 km

away at Laufen am Neckar from Frankfurt where there was a small waterfall. Using this small water­

fall, turbines were utilized to generate power of 300 horsepower (224 kW) which was taken up to drive

two three-phase alternators. Tis generated three currents of 1,400 A at 55 V with 40 Hz. Tis voltage

was raised to 8,500 V and was reduced at the Frankfurt end to 65 V which was then utilized for light­

ing incandescent lamps and driving motors. Te transmission lines consisted of three copper wires,

each 4 mm in diameter carried on porcelain insulators on 3,000 telegraph posts stretching over 175 km.

Tis test showed that 74% of the energy given by the waterfall at Laufen was transmitted electrically to

Frankfurt. Tis test plant experiment produced great interest and surprised all the electrical enterprises

due to the fact that the commercial practicality of transmitting water power for long distance by high

voltage three-phase currents was demonstrated. Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky (1861–1919), a Polish-

Russian engineer, created the three-phase transformer system which was used in the system used to

transmit the electric power at this test plant.

Te introduction of electric power transmission system brought the battle of the currents between

Edison and Westinghouse. Tey fought a battle between Direct current (DC) and Alternating current

(AC) transmission with Tesla who favored the latter. Te AC transmission lines gradually gained the posi­

tion with the use of Tesla’s invention. However, with the technical development of easily handling AC-DC

conversion at power stations, DC began to be used for the transmission. In the late nineteenth century,

Tomas Edison promoted large-scale low voltage DC electricity supply indoor for incandescent lighting

networks in New York. However, in 1888, Westinghouse opened an AC power plant in Bufalo, New York,

and stepped down 1,000 V to 50 V to send to the consumers. George Westinghouse (1846–1914) introduced

an AC-based power distribution network. William Stanley (1858–1916), an American physicist, developed

the frst AC transformer, and he helped building Westinghouse’s frst AC transmission systems.

Te transmission of power from the Niagara Falls began to be considered around 1892. Tis Niagara

Falls project would produce 5,000 horsepower (3,700 kW) with transmission as a 25 Hz AC current. Tis

large-scale hydroelectric generator at Niagara Falls provided electricity to Bufalo, New York, via trans­

mission lines. Nikola Tesla invented an AC induction motor which was used in the power industry. In

1895, George Westinghouse with Nikola Tesla constructed a large hydroelectric power plant at Niagara

Falls and from there the electricity was supplied to the place of consumption by long-distance trans­

mission of electricity. AC current was used due to its character for increasing or decreasing voltage and

long-distance transmission with high voltages. Tis transmission system made it successful.

From around 1900s, people began to live in anthropogenic electromagnetic environments due to

the successful development of electrifcation around the world (Fleming, 1921). With the expansion of

the use of electricity, the levels of anthropogenic electromagnetic felds increased. Medical and clini­

cal applications of electricity started and drew attention afer the twentieth century began. Tis led to